第七章

　　Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is under-going constant changes both in form and content.

　　The content is even more unstable than the forms.

　　Word-meaning changes by modes if extension， narrowing， degradation， elevation and transfer. of these， extension and narrowing are by far the most common.

　　1.Extension （generalization）——is a term referring to the widening of meaning. It is a process by which a word， which originally had a specialized meaning， has now become generalized.

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Manuscript handwriting any author’s writing whether written by hand or typed

　　with a type-writer or a word-processor

　　Fabulous resembling a fable incredible， marvelous

　　Barn a place for storing only barley storeroom

　　Picture painting include “drawings” and even “photographs”。

　　Mill place for grinding into flour place where things are made

　　Journal daily paper periodical

　　Butcher one who kills goats one who kills animals

　　Companion one who shares bread a company

　　。 A large proportion of polysemic words of modern English have their meanings extended sometimes in the course of development. Some words are generalized to such an extent that they can mean almost anything.

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Thing a public assembly or a council anything

　　Business， concern， condition， matter， article， circumstance

　　。 Technical terms

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Alibi （a legal term） plea that the accused is not at the place excuse

　　When the crime is committed

　　Allergic （a medical term） too sensitive to medicine averse or disinclined to

　　Feedback （computer term） response

　　。 From proper nouns

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Lynch the Lynch’s Law kill without lawful trial

　　Sandwish a gambler’s name to denote a kind of fast place or squeeze between

　　Food

　　Vandal a member of an East Germanic tribe malicious destruction of a thing

　　A person of such behaviour

　　V. vandalize

　　Adj. Vandalic/vandalistic

　　n. vandalization/vandalism

　　2. Narrowing （specialization） ——is a term referring to the shrinking of meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Deer animal

　　Corn grain maize

　　Garage any safe place a place for storing cars

　　Liquor liquid alcoholic drink

　　Disease discomfort illness

　　Poison drink poisonous drink

　　Wife woman a married woman

　　Accident event unfortunate event

　　Girl young person of either sex female young person

　　。 Turn into a proper nouns

　　The City business center of London

　　The Peninsula Iberian Peninsula

　　The Prophet Mohammed

　　。 For economy， some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original is left to retain the meaning of the whole.

　　e.g. a private = a private solider

　　a general = a general officer

　　an editorial = an editorial article

　　。 Material nouns

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Silver silver dollars

　　Glass cup-like container or mirror

　　Iron device for smoothing clothes

　　3.Elevation or amelioration——refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Nice ignorant —— foolish delightful， pleasant

　　Marshal / constable keeper of horses high-ranking army officer / policemen

　　Angle messenger messenger of God

　　Knight servant rank below baronet

　　Earl men count

　　Governor pilot head of a state

　　Fond foolish affectionate

　　Minister servant head of ministry

　　Shrewd evil， wickedness smart

　　Nimble be good at taking things without permission smart

　　Chamberlain servant high official of royal courts

　　Success result

　　4. Degradation or pejoration of meaning ——It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Boor peasant rude， ill-mannered person

　　Churl peasant / free man uncultivated or mean person

　　Wench country girl prostitute

　　Hussy housewife woman of low morals

　　Villain person who worked in a villa evil or wicked person or scoundrel

　　Silly happy foolish

　　Knave boy dishonest person

　　Lewd ignorant lecherous

　　Criticize appraise find fault with

　　Lust pleasure sexual desire

　　5. Transfer —— words which were used to designate on thing but later changed to mean something else.

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Paper an African plant papyrus

　　。 Associated transfer

　　E.g. the lip of a wound

　　The tongue of a bell

　　The nose of a plane

　　Purse for money， dish for food， glass for cup

　　。 Between abstract and concrete meaning

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Aftermath second crop of grass after mowing consequence， result

　　Hope e.g. Clinton is the hope of the family.

　　。 Between subject and objective meaning

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Pitiful full of pity deserving pity

　　Dreadful / hateful subject meaning objective meaning

　　Fearful/ doubtful / suspicious subject and objective meaning

　　。 Transfer of sensations

　　E.g. clear-sounding （from sight to hearing）

　　Loud colours （from hearing to sight）

　　Sweet music （from taste to hearing）

　　6. Extra-linguistic Factors

　　1. Historical reason

　　。 A word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed because the reference has changed.

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Pen feather

　　Car two-wheel cart drown by horses and used automobile

　　in war

　　Computer person who computes electronic machine

　　。 Increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factors

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Sun the luminous heavenly body-one of the star around which the earth and other planets revolve

　　seven planets revolving around the earth

　　Atom any of the inspanisible particles not the smallest and can be spanided into even smaller

　　particles

　　2. Class reason. Language is just like a mirror， reflecting everything that exists in human society. It records the speech and attitude of different social classes. As a result， different social varieties of language have come into being.

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Churl， hussy， wench， villain ill-mannered or bad people

　　Democracy， revolution， liberalism， human rights， communism different meaning in different societies and to different

　　People

　　3. Psychological reason. The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. people change word-meaning owing to various psychological. Religious influence is another kind psychological need.

　　Word old meaning now meaning

　　Copperhead a venomous snake

　　7. Linguistic factors

　　1. Shortening

　　Gold for gold medal

　　Gas for coal gas

　　Bulb for light bulb

　　Private for private solider

　　2. Borrowing

　　Deer / animal / beast

　　Pig / pork， sheep / mutton， cattle / beef

　　Bird / fowl， dog / hound， boy / knave， chair / stool

　　3. Analogy

　　Fortuitous happening by chance， accident fortunate

　　Fruition a pleasure obtaining from using or possessing something